The subtle tremor in a hand, noticed one morning, might be the first clue to a journey decades in the making.
People affected globally
Increase in prevalence (2016-2021)
Accuracy of new diagnostic test
Directly inherited cases
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the world's second most common neurodegenerative disease after Alzheimer's, affecting more than 10 million people globally.2 Its incidence is rising dramatically, with global prevalence increasing from 6.1 million in 2016 to 11.8 million in 2021—a jump that cannot be explained by aging alone.9
While often associated with motor symptoms, Parkinson's is a complex whole-body disorder affecting multiple systems.
The core pathology of Parkinson's involves the progressive loss of dopamine-producing neurons in a region of the brain called the substantia nigra, part of the basal ganglia that controls movement.3 8 As these neurons die, reduced dopamine levels lead to the characteristic movement problems.
But Parkinson's also affects other brain chemicals; the loss of norepinephrine, for instance, may explain some non-motor symptoms like fatigue and blood pressure fluctuations.8
A key pathological hallmark is the presence of Lewy bodies—unusual clumps primarily composed of a misfolded protein called alpha-synuclein—inside brain cells.8 The journey to understand why these clumps form and how to stop them represents the frontier of Parkinson's research today.
Parkinson's disease does not have a single cause. Rather, it results from a complex interplay of genetic susceptibility and environmental factors, which can trigger a cascade of cellular dysfunction.
Only about 5-10% of Parkinson's cases are directly inherited, but genetic factors play a role in susceptibility.8
The greatest genetic risk factor for developing PD; harmful variants reduce the activity of an enzyme called glucocerebrosidase (GCase), crucial for the cell's recycling process.2
Mutations in this gene are associated with increased risk of PD.9
Encodes the protein Parkin, which works with PINK1 in mitochondrial quality control.6
Mutations in this gene, particularly linked to Young Onset Parkinson's Disease, disrupt the cell's ability to clean up damaged mitochondria.6
A groundbreaking April 2025 study from Northwestern University used CRISPR technology to systematically examine every gene in the human genome, identifying a new set of genes that contribute to Parkinson's risk.2
Genetic predisposition often needs environmental triggers to set the disease process in motion. Several environmental factors have been strongly linked to increased PD risk:
| Factor | Type | Risk Increase | Mechanism |
|---|---|---|---|
| Paraquat | Herbicide | 2.5x | Mitochondrial dysfunction, oxidative stress |
| Rotenone | Pesticide | Significant | Directly inhibits mitochondrial complex I |
| TCE | Industrial Solvent | 70% | Persistent environmental contaminant, mitochondrial damage |
| Air Pollution (PM2.5) | Environmental | 9% | Systemic inflammation, alpha-synuclein aggregation |
The research revealed that a group of 16 proteins called the Commander complex plays a previously unrecognized role in delivering specific proteins to the lysosome—the cell's recycling center. Dysfunction in this complex increases Parkinson's risk, particularly in those already carrying GBA1 mutations.2
Among the most exciting recent developments in Parkinson's research involves understanding and targeting the alpha-synuclein protein. In its healthy state, alpha-synuclein is a flexible protein that helps control the release of neurotransmitters like dopamine. But when it misfolds, it begins to stick together, forming toxic clusters that kill nerve cells.
In an October 2025 study published in JACS Au, scientists from the University of Bath, Oxford, and Bristol designed a novel approach to tackle this problem head-on.
The experiments yielded promising results. The designed peptide successfully stabilized alpha-synuclein, preventing it from forming toxic clusters in cellular models.
Even more significantly, in the worm model of Parkinson's, treatment with the peptide improved motor function.
This demonstrates that the approach not only works at a molecular level but also translates to functional benefits in a living organism.
| Research Tool | Function in Research | Application in PD Studies |
|---|---|---|
| CRISPR Interference | Gene editing technology to selectively silence genes2 | Identifying new risk genes by systematically turning off each human gene2 |
| hiPSC-derived Neurons | Patient-specific stem cells differentiated into brain cells3 | Modeling PD in a dish to study cellular mechanisms and test drugs3 |
| Microelectrode Arrays (MEAs) | Non-invasive chips that record electrical activity from neural networks3 | Studying network disruptions in PD models and screening drug effects3 |
| Alpha-synuclein Seed Amplification Assay | Diagnostic test that detects clumps of alpha-synuclein protein1 | Identifying PD before symptoms begin; 87.7% accuracy in 2023 study1 |
| C. elegans (Worm) Model | Transparent worms with a simple nervous system | Rapidly testing potential therapies, such as the new alpha-synuclein-stabilizing peptide |
Diagnosing Parkinson's remains a clinical art. There is no single definitive test, so neurologists rely on medical history, a review of symptoms, and neurological and physical exams.1 This process can take time, and patients may need regular follow-up appointments to confirm a diagnosis.1
While there is no cure, treatments can effectively manage symptoms.5
For those who do not respond adequately to medication, deep brain stimulation (DBS) can be highly effective.
DBS involves surgically implanting electrodes in the brain connected to a pacemaker-like device in the chest. The electrical stimulation can help control tremors, rigidity, and slowness of movement.1 8
A comprehensive care plan includes:
| Therapy Type | Examples | How It Works | Stage of Development |
|---|---|---|---|
| Levodopa/Carbidopa | Sinemet, Rytary1 | Replenishes brain's dopamine supply | Gold standard, widely used |
| Dopamine Agonists | Pramipexole, Rotigotine patch1 5 | Mimics dopamine effects in the brain | Widely used |
| Deep Brain Stimulation | Medtronic, Boston Scientific systems | Electrical stimulation of brain movement centers | Established surgical treatment |
| Alpha-synuclein Stabilizer | University of Bath peptide | Locks protein in healthy shape to prevent toxic clumping | Preclinical (animal testing) |
| Commander-Targeting Drugs | Not yet named2 | Aims to improve lysosomal (cellular recycling) function | Early research phase |
The landscape of Parkinson's research is vibrant with promise. From stabilizing alpha-synuclein to fixing broken cellular recycling systems, scientists are attacking the disease from multiple angles. The American Parkinson Disease Association is funding dozens of innovative projects for 2025-2026, ranging from understanding pain as a non-motor symptom to developing an alpha-synuclein vaccine.4
For the millions living with Parkinson's, these advances bring hope that future treatments will do more than mask symptoms—they may actually slow or stop the disease's progression.
The puzzle of Parkinson's is complex, but each new discovery adds a crucial piece, bringing us closer to a complete picture and, ultimately, a cure.
For more information and support resources, please visit:
Parkinson's Foundation American Parkinson Disease Association
References will be added here in the final publication.